Camel management

Camel management The present study was done to investigate the general information about camel`s herders, camel heal As, the life cycles of B.

The present study was done to investigate the general information about camel`s herders, camel health, general management and husbandry, general aspects of the herders` farms and their view of the camel production. Three herds (2937 camels) at Khartoum State (Omdurman and Eastern Nile; Eid babiker and Alkadero) were selected for the present survey. The investigation revealed that the ratio of fema

les` camels is particularly higher than that of males in the three herds. Female` and males camels were 83.9 and 16.1%, 74.6 and 25.4% and 76.1 and 23.9% in Omdurman, Eid babiker and Alkadero, respectively. The milk produced was found to be for family subsistence and offered free for the others; for medicinal purposes. The camels might come in contact during breeding, browsing and at water points. The other species of animal don`t come in contact with camel at Omdurman and do at varying levels at other regions. In Omdurman herders are sharing lands (communal land), while in Eastern Nile (Eid babiker and Alkadero) they own lands. Also differences of food and water sources and uses in the three regions were found. The camel herders support their camels with minerals (common salt), moreover camel herders at Omdurman give their herds licking stone. The incidences of some common diseases were carried out, the abortion`s incidences, although high among the three herds, it showed non-significant differences. The screening for the treatment of internal parasites showed highly significant (p

28/07/2022

Camelpox is the only camel disease included in the OIE’s list of reportable diseases. A chapter on camelpox has been recently added to the OIE’s manual of terrestrial animal diseases, following its endorsement by OIE’s assembly during the general session of May 2014. A special research interest in camelpox has resulted in numerous publications on different aspects of the disease and the causative virus. This is mainly attributable to the resemblance of the CMLV to small poxvirus (Baxby 1974). Interestingly, the CMLV is recently becoming the subject for studies on antiviral therapies (Duraffour et al. 2014), cellular ion channel analysis, and apoptosis.
Camelpox is a highly contagious skin disease and the most frequent infectious viral disease of the camelids that occurs in almost every country in which camel husbandry is practiced (Fig.20.1). Outbreaks have been reported in Asia (Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Yemen, Syria, Afghanistan, southern parts of Russia and India, and Pakistan) and in Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Somalia, and Sudan). The disease is endemic in these countries, and a pattern of sporadic outbreaks occurs with a rise in the seasonal incidence usually during the rainy season (OIE 2008). The disease was recently reported from Saudi Arabia (Yousif 2011), India (Bhanuprakash et al. 2010; Bera et al. 2011), Ethiopia (Ayelet et al. 2013), and Iran (Mosadeghhesari et al. 2014).

28/07/2022

It is estimated that 65 % of fatalities in Old World camels (OWC, i.e., Camelus dromedarius and C. bactrianus) and 50 % in New World camelids/South American camelids (NWC/SAC, i.e., the domestic alpaca (Vicugna pacos) and llama (Lama glama)) are caused by infectious diseases (Wernery and Kaaden 2002). In the past, camels were used mainly for transportation beside their role as the main source of milk and meat for pastoralists. Dromedary camel in sub-Saharan Africa was traditionally known to be reared in the arid and semiarid lands. Due to aridity and desertification, they obliged to move to the higher rainfall areas side by side with other domestic livestock and wildlife. This change resulted in exposure of camels to diseases that were uncommon in their natural habitat such as dermatophilosis, tick paralysis, trypanosomosis, and brucellosis. The situation in Niger, Chad, and Sudan is an example where diseases like contagious ecthyma, trypanosomosis, and tick paralysis have become very serious with increased mortality rates due to the migration of camels south of their well-known camel belt. Drought in the Sahel and the Horn of Africa has also brought pastoralists closer to urban centers, and sales of camel milk became their main source of cash income. Due to an increased demand of urban populations of many countries, particularly in North Africa and the Middle East for camel milk, many dairy farms are established in intensive and semi-intensive systems. This development may be responsible for making camels more susceptible to certain disease. Brucellosis, enterotoxemia, and Johne’s disease are examples of these diseases. A similar situation could be envisaged for an increased incidence of enterotoxemia in camels when raised in an intensive husbandry system as in the UAE (Wernery and Kaaden 2002) or Syria (Khalafalla AI 2015, personnel communication). Changes in animal husbandry related to increasing camel contacts with other animal species, such as equids, may cause disease emergence. Examples of newly emerged diseases of camels resulting from sharing premises with equines are glanders (Wernery et al. 2011), melioidosis (Wernery et al. 1997), and Rhodococcus equi infection (Kinne et al. 2011). Another factor that may contribute to the emergence of camel diseases is the migration into new habitat that never was reached before by camels (Faye and Vias 2010).

28/07/2022

Growing interest in camelids presents a unique challenge to scientists and veterinarians engaged in diagnosing infectious diseases of this species. It is estimated that 65 % of fatalities in Old World camels (OWC, i.e., Camelus dromedarius and C. bactrianus) and 50 % in New World camelids/South American camelids (NWC/SAC, i.e., the domestic alpaca (Vicugna pacos) and llama (Lama glama)) are caused by infectious diseases. Factors that contribute to disease emergence in camelids involve climate change and increased demand for camel products resulting in the intensification of production and expanding camel contacts with other animal species and humans. In this chapter, the most important emerging diseases of camelids are described and discussed. The most notable emerging viral infections in OWC include camelpox, Rift Valley fever (RVF), peste des petits ruminants (PPR), and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection. Brucellosis, Johne’s disease (JD), and dermatophilosis are the emerging bacterial diseases in OWC. Emerging diseases of NWC include infections with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), bluetongue (BT), and coronavirus. Parasitic emerging infections in NWCs include the small liver fluke (Dicrocoelium dendriticum) and meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis).

28/07/2022

A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 150 camel-keeping households, 15 agro-veterinary outlets/shops, 15 community-based animal health workers and 10 veterinary officers were conveniently selected along the Mlango-Ngarendare-Burat, Kambi Garba-Ngaremara -Chumvi-Gambela and Boji-Kulamawe-Baranbate camel milk clusters in Isiolo County. The households were conveniently selected from each of the above clusters based on the Kenya population census clustering system (KNBS 2010), accessibility and the willingness of pastoralists to take part in the study.
One set of semi-structured questionnaires were administered to 150 camel-keeping households to obtain information on camel health management practices and knowledge/information of pastoralists on the right veterinary practices in camel health management, zoonotic organisms/diseases and food safety risks. The practices determined were who treats camel/livestock, sources of veterinary drugs for treating the camel/livestock, source of knowledge and information on veterinary drug use, type of records kept when treating camel/livestock and constraints in purchasing of veterinary drugs as dependent variables. These practices if not professionally done will result in drug residues in camel milk and meat and development of drug resistant zoonotic organisms with serious implications for food safety.
Knowledge and information of pastoralists on camel husbandry practices associated with spread of zoonotic organisms/diseases was determined. Also, knowledge of pastoralists on potential food safety risk along the camel milk value chain, milk withdrawal period after treatment of camels, presence of drug residues and drug resistance was determined.
Another set of different semi-structured questionnaires were administered specifically to 15 agro-veterinary outlets/shops, 15 community-based animal health workers and 10 veterinary officers to elicit their knowledge/information on provision of veterinary services, types of diseases commonly affecting camels, types of veterinary drugs commonly used, dosage used in treatment of camels and practices that predispose camel and pastoralists to zoonotic diseases, as dependent variables.
Focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted to complement the information gathered through the semi-structured questionnaires. The FGDs and KIIs comments were also used to clarify and give more insights on aspects of camel health management practices, zoonoses and food safety risk factors.

28/07/2022

The Kenyan livestock sector contributes about 10% of the gross domestic product (GDP), with the cattle dairy sub-sector contributing 3.8% of total GDP. However, the contribution of the camel dairy sub-sector is not quantified (GOK 2010).
In Kenya, the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) population is estimated to be over three million heads (KNBS 2010; FAOSTAT 2015), the third largest population in Africa after Somalia and Sudan. The camels are mainly kept as mobile grazing herds under pastoral production systems in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) counties of Kenya. The ASALs are characterized by high levels of poverty, poor infrastructure, extreme weather and a fragile environment. Camels require low production inputs as they have unique adaptability to these harsh environmental conditions. Camels produce more milk and for a longer period than other livestock under these harsh ASAL conditions (Farah and Fisher 2004). However, this comparative advantage of camels as a milk producer over other livestock has not been adequately exploited in the improvement of the ASAL community livelihoods.
One of the major constraints is poor camel health management, which does not give consumers assurance on absence or presence of zoonotic organisms/diseases and other food safety issues. Good camel health management practices are an important factor for increased milk productivity and in promoting domestic and export milk trade (Kuria et al. 2002).
However, the privatization of veterinary services in Kenya in the 1990s (Umali et al. 1992) resulted in inadequate professional veterinary service delivery in the ASALs, as most private veterinary service providers found it not economically viable to operate in these vast areas with poor infrastructure. This had a negative impact on camel/livestock health and productivity as it hampered the provision of veterinary services and dissemination of knowledge and information on good camel health management practices to pastoralists. The result effect was mushrooming of unskilled veterinary service providers (community-based animal health workers (CBAHWs)) and self-medication of livestock, including camels. The absence of professional veterinary services results in uncontrolled and unauthorized sale of veterinary drugs by agro-veterinary shops, self-medication, use of wrong veterinary drugs, injection needles and route, and overdosing of chemotherapeutic veterinary drugs (Kuria et al. 2002) leading to food safety concerns like drug residues and development of drug resistance among zoonotic organisms/diseases in milk and meat. Therefore, the liberalization of veterinary services in the camel sub-sector resulted in development of diseases that lowered productivity. The urban and export markets also developed negative attitudes towards camel milk and meat due to the likely presence of zoonotic organisms/diseases and food safety concerns, hence limiting the markets for camel products only to traditional consumers.
The frequent contact between livestock (camels) and humans and communal watering of livestock also facilitates spread of zoonotic organisms/diseases with a potentially high risk to public health among livestock and humans (Younan and Abdurahman 2004; Oliver et al. 2009; Kazoora et al. 2014).
Despite growing importance of the camel dairy sub-sector in Kenya, the effects of the post-privatization of veterinary services, current pastoralists’ knowledge and information on camel health management is still limited. Most of the research conducted has documented camel husbandry practices like feeding, breeding and watering, with very little attention given to camel health management and the implication on presence or absence of zoonotic organisms/diseases and milk safety (Wanjohi et al. 2012; Wanjohi et al. 2013; Gitao et al 2013).
The present study was carried out to assess current camel health management and the impact of pastoralists’ knowledge/information on zoonoses and food safety risks along the camel value chain in Isiolo County, Kenya, which is a major camel milk producing and marketing area in Kenya.

28/07/2022

Camel health management has implications for public health and camel product trade. After liberalization of the veterinary service, current camel health management in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALS) of Kenya and its implications for public health is not known. This study investigated camel health management and its implications on zoonoses and food safety in Isiolo County, Kenya. Semi-structured questionnaires were administered to 150 households, 15 agro-veterinary shops, 15 community-based animal health workers (CBAHWs) and 10 veterinary officers to collect information on camel health management. The main occupation and source of household income for the pastoral communities is camel-keeping (45.3%). Pastoralists self-medicate camels and other livestock (45.8%), which can lead to between over-dosing, under-dosing or wrong drug use. The CBAHWs, traditional animal health service providers (TAHSPs), government veterinary officers and private veterinary officers play a minimum role. Private veterinary services have not taken root in the ASALs. The sources of knowledge and information on the veterinary drug to use are experience (57.4%), non-governmental organizations (NGO) (41.1%) or CBAHWs (32.1%). The majority of pastoralists (72.5%) do not keep camel or other livestock treatment records. The constraints in purchasing veterinary drugs are expensive drugs, accessibility to drugs and availability of money. Pastoralists refer to veterinary drugs by their brand names but not by active ingredients. As reported by pastoralists, focus group discussion and key informant interviews, antibiotics used were adamycine (33.3%), ampicilline (26.7%), penicillin (14.4%), tetracycline (12.2%), amoxylin (11.1%) and penstrip (2.2%). The common camel diseases were trypanosomiasis, brucellosis, mastitis, diarrhoea, worm infestation, camel pox and tuberculosis. The public health risk factors were the presence of veterinary drug residues in camel products and development of resistant zoonotic organisms/diseases. It was concluded that current camel health management has serious implications for public health and food safety, and hence the camel product trade.

06/11/2021

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