Foot and mouth disease in cattle

Foot and mouth disease in cattle Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a transboundary animal disease (TAD) that severely affect the produc What is FMD? The incubation period is 2–14 days.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a severe, highly contagious viral disease of livestock that has a significant economic impact. The disease affects cattle, swine, sheep, goats and other cloven-hoofed ruminants. Intensively reared animals are more susceptible to the disease than traditional breeds. The disease is rarely fatal in adult animals, but there is often high mortality in young animals due t

o myocarditis or, when the dam is infected by the disease, lack of milk. FMD is characterised by fever and blister-like sores on the tongue and lips, in the mouth, on the teats and between the hooves. The disease causes severe production losses, and while the majority of affected animals recover, the disease often leaves them weakened and debilitated. The organism which causes FMD is an aphthovirus of the family Picornaviridae. There are seven strains (A, O, C, SAT1, SAT2, SAT3, and Asia1) which are endemic in different countries worldwide. Each strain requires a specific vaccine to provide immunity to a vaccinated animal. All seven of the serotypes have also been found in wildlife, although the latter does not play a significant role in the maintenance of the disease1. To date, the only confirmed reservoir in wildlife is African buffalo Syncerus caffer). FMD is an OIE-listed disease and must be reported to the Organisation, as indicated in the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code. It was the first disease for which the OIE established official status recognition. Member Countries can also apply for official endorsement of their national control programmes. Transmission and spread
FMD is found in all excretions and secretions from infected animals. Notably, these animals breathe out a large amount of aerosolised virus, which can infect other animals via the respiratory or oral routes. The virus may be present in milk and semen for up to 4 days before the animal shows clinical signs of disease. The significance of FMD is related to the ease with which the virus can spread through any or all of the following:

infected animals newly introduced into a herd (carrying virus in their saliva, milk, semen, etc.);
contaminated pens/buildings or contaminated animal transport vehicles;
contaminated materials such as hay, feed, water, milk or biologics;
contaminated clothing, footwear, or equipment;
virus-infected meat or other contaminated animal products (if fed to animals when raw or improperly cooked);
infected aerosols (spread of virus from an infected property via air currents). Animals that have recovered from infection may sometimes carry the virus and initiate new outbreaks of the disease. Public health risk
FMD is not readily transmissible to humans and is not a public health risk. Clinical signs
The severity of clinical signs will depend on the strain of virus, the exposure dose, the age and species of animal and the host immunity. Morbidity can reach 100% in susceptible populations. Mortality is generally low in adult animals (1–5%), but higher in young calves, lambs and piglets (20% or higher). Clinical signs can range from mild or inapparent to severe: they are more severe in cattle and intensively reared pigs than in sheep and goats. The typical clinical sign is the occurrence of blisters (or vesicles) on the nose, tongue or lips, inside the oral cavity, between the toes, above the hooves, on the teats and at pressure points on the skin. Ruptured blisters can result in extreme lameness and reluctance to move or eat. Usually, blisters heal within 7 days (sometimes longer), but complications, such as secondary bacterial infection of open blisters, can also occur. Other frequent symptoms are fever, depression, hypersalivation, loss of appetite, weight loss, growth retardation and a drop in milk production, which can persist even after recovery. Chronically affected animals are reported to have an overall reduction of 80% in milk yield. The health of young calves, lambs, and piglets may be compromised by lack of milk if dams are infected. Death can occur before development of blisters due to a multifocal myocarditis. Myositis may also occur in other sites. More information on the disease can be found in the OIE Technical Disease Card. Diagnostic
The disease may be suspected based on clinical signs. However, FMD cannot be differentiated clinically from other vesicular diseases, such as swine vesicular disease, vesicular stomatitis and vesicular exanthema. Confirmation of any suspected FMD case through laboratory tests is therefore a matter of urgency. Relevant tests are described in the OIE Terrestrial Manual. Prevention and control
The initial measures described in the Global Food and Mouth disease control strategy are the presence of early detection and warning systems and the implementation of effective surveillance in accordance with the guidelines detailed in the OIE Terrestrial Code. They help monitor the occurrence and prevalence of the disease and allow characterisation of FMD viruses. The implementation of the FMD control strategy varies from country to country and depends on the epidemiological situation of the disease:

In general, it is essential for livestock owners and producers to maintain sound biosecurity practices to prevent the introduction and spread of the virus. Measures that are recommended at the farm level include:

control over people’s access to livestock and equipment;
controlled introduction of new animals into existing herds;
regular cleaning and disinfection of livestock pens, buildings, vehicles and equipment;
monitoring and reporting of illness;
appropriate disposal of manure and dead carcasses. Contingency planning for potential outbreaks will identify the elements included in a response effort to eradicate the disease, such as:

humane destruction of all infected, recovered and FMD-susceptible contact animals;
appropriate disposal of carcasses and all animal products;
surveillance and tracing of potentially infected or exposed livestock;
strict quarantine and controls on movement of livestock, equipment, vehicles, and;
thorough disinfection of premises and all infected materials (implements, cars, clothes, etc.). Use of vaccination

Depending on the FMD situation, vaccination strategies can be designed to achieve mass coverage or be targeted to specific animal sub-populations or zones. Vaccination programmes carried out in a target population should meet several critical criteria, mainly:

coverage should be at least 80%;
campaigns should be completed in the shortest possible time;
vaccination should be scheduled to allow for interference from maternal immunity;
vaccines should be administered in the correct dose and by the correct route;
The vaccines used should meet OIE standards of potency and safety, and the strain or strains in the vaccine must antigenically match those circulating in the field. It is important to use inactivated virus vaccines, as inactivated virus does not have the ability to multiply in vaccinated animals. The use of live virus vaccines is not acceptable due to the danger of reversion to virulence

Vaccination can play a role in an effective control strategy for FMD, but the decision on whether or not to use vaccination lies with national authorities. For more information on FMD vaccination, consult the related FAQ. Geographical distribution
FMD is endemic in several parts of Asia and in most of Africa and the Middle East. In Latin America, the majority of countries apply zoning and are recognised as FMD-free, either with or without vaccination. Australia, New Zealand, Indonesia, Central and North America, and continental Western Europe are currently free of FMD. However, FMD is a transboundary animal disease that can occur sporadically in any typically free area. FMD-free Status
FMD is the first disease for which the OIE established an official list of disease-free countries. Through a transparent, science-based and impartial procedure, countries can be officially recognised as free of the disease either in their entirety or in defined zones and compartments. Categories for FMD disease status include:

FMD free without using vaccination (country or zone)
FMD free with use of vaccination (country or zone)
Member Countries can also ask the OIE to officially endorsetheir national programmes for FMD control. Details on the granting, maintenance, suspension and recovery of official recognition of FMD status or official endorsement of an FMD control programme can be found here, including the relevant Standard Operating Procedures.

31/08/2022

Vaccination of susceptible animals against foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a well established strategy for helping to combat the disease. Traditionally, FMD vaccine has been used to control a disease incursion in countries where the disease has been endemic rather than in countries considered free of the disease. In 2001, the use of vaccine was considered but not implemented in the United Kingdom (1), whereas vaccine was used to help to control FMD in The Netherlands (2,3). Canadian contingency plans provide for the use of vaccine; Canada is a member of the North American Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine Bank, which could supply vaccine if needed. This article explains why Canada might use FMD vaccine to combat an outbreak and the factors that are relevant to the disposal of vaccinated animals and their products. It concludes that vaccination is an important mechanism in Canada's preparedness for an outbreak of FMD and that products from vaccinated animals are safe for human consumption.

31/08/2022

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a serious and highly contagious animal disease that affects all cloven-hoofed animals including cattle, sheep, goats, camelids, deer and pigs. Cloven-hoofed animals are those with divided hooves. It does not affect horses or zebras.

Foot-and-mouth disease: the gaps in South Africa’s efforts to keep it under controlIn mid August, South Africa’s ministe...
31/08/2022

Foot-and-mouth disease: the gaps in South Africa’s efforts to keep it under control
In mid August, South Africa’s minister of agriculture, land reform and rural development Thoko Didiza responded to outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease with a nationwide ban on the movement of cattle for 21 days. By late August, 127 cases of the disease had been recorded in six of the country’s nine provinces. The Conversation Africa spoke with Rebone Moerane and Melvyn Quan about the disease, its effects and the government’s mitigation strategies.
What is foot-and-mouth disease?
It’s a viral disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals, such as cattle, sheep, goats and pigs, and wild animals such as buffalo. The disease is caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus. The virus is extremely contagious; it can travel on air currents and infect animals many kilometres away from the source. Animals can also be infected by close or direct contact with other infected animals, or contaminated people, vehicles and equipment.
As the name suggests, the disease can be recognised by blisters and ulcers on areas where there is friction, such as the mouth, feet and teats. Not many animals die from the disease. But there are production losses related to reduced milk yield, growth of affected animals and poor quality wool.
The main economic impact of the disease comes from trade bans and the inability to move or sell animals and animal products from affected areas.
South Africa has different zones where different levels of foot-and-mouth disease control are applied. In the north and the east, the Kruger National Park and northern KwaZulu-Natal province are considered the infected zone. This is surrounded by a protection zone, in which cloven-hooved and related wild animals are vaccinated against the virus. This provides a barrier to the disease spreading to the rest of the country. There’s also a zone which is under close surveillance. The rest of South Africa is normally considered free of the disease.
The recent outbreaks have occurred in the foot-and-mouth disease free zone. As a result, South Africa cannot export animals and fresh meat to other countries. According to official statistics, South Africa “produces approximately 21.4% of the total meat produced on the (African) continent and 1% of global meat production”. The livestock industry also contributes 34.1% to the total domestic agricultural production and provides 36% of the population’s protein needs. This shows how economically damaging the current situation is.
Are there any risks to human health?
Humans cannot be infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus, so meat from an infected animal is safe for human consumption. However, the infected meat can act as a source of infection to other cloven-hoofed animals if it is not deboned and canned, salted or heated to inactivate the virus.
This virus should not be confused with hand, foot and mouth disease; its only relation is that it belongs to the same family of viruses.
What is the current situation in South Africa?
There are three outbreaks. The first started in May 2021 in KwaZulu-Natal, the second in March 2022 in Limpopo and the third, also in March 2022, began in the North West province and spread to the Free State, Gauteng and Mpumulanga provinces. There are currently 127 open cases – that’s a lot.
This resulted in the minister’s announcement of a 21-day movement ban. Animals on affected properties are being quarantined and in some cases culled. There’s a vaccination drive in the affected areas. All vaccinated animals should be branded with an “F” mark to show they’ve been inoculated against the virus. Surveillance has also increased: cattle are being examined for clinical signs of the disease; blood is being drawn to test cattle for antibodies that would indicate a previous infection.
Is there anything else the government should be doing?
The government has tried to implement measures in line with the gazetted policy to control the disease. But there are several challenges with this approach.
The first is that the control of any animal disease is not solely the government’s responsibility. Other stakeholders – like farm owners and managers – are obliged by legislation to prevent the spread of disease.
Unfortunately most farmers, especially small-scale rural farmers, might not be aware of such responsibility. They may not have the means or have been equipped with the necessary tools to identify sick animals early and report to a state veterinary official or a private veterinarian. Those small-scale rural farmers in the infected zone need more support during outbreaks and during normal times. For instance, there’s no reason why the government could not invest in assisting farmers in this zone by providing processing plants for the proper slaughtering and processing of meat in line with international standards.
Read more: Tanzanian farmers don't vaccinate against foot and mouth disease. Here's why
Another problem is that the current measures are unfortunately short term and don’t take all the issues at play into consideration. The veterinary authority, which is part of the department of agriculture, land reform and rural development, needs extra funding, through a special allocation from the national treasury, to tackle these outbreaks and continue its normal work. This requires political support from cabinet and parliament.

10/08/2022

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals including cattle, pigs, sheep and many wildlife species. It can cause enormous economic losses when incursions occur into countries which are normally disease free. In addition, it has long-term effects within countries where the disease is endemic due to reduced animal productivity and the restrictions on international trade in animal products. The disease is caused by infection with foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), a picornavirus. Seven different serotypes (and numerous variants) of FMDV have been identified. Some serotypes have a restricted geographical distribution, e.g. Asia-1, whereas others, notably serotype O, occur in many different regions. There is no cross-protection between serotypes and sometimes protection conferred by vaccines even of the same serotype can be limited. Thus it is important to characterize the viruses that are circulating if vaccination is being used for disease control. This review describes current methods for the detection and characterization of FMDVs. Sequence information is increasingly being used for identifying the source of outbreaks. In addition such information can be used to understand antigenic change within virus strains. The challenges and opportunities for improving the control of the disease within endemic settings, with a focus on Eurasia, are discussed, including the role of the FAO/EuFMD/OIE Progressive Control Pathway. Better control of the disease in endemic areas reduces the risk of incursions into disease-free regions.

10/08/2022

How is the virus spread?
FMD is a highly contagious animal disease that spreads rapidly between susceptible animals.
Virus is excreted in the breath, saliva, mucus, milk and faeces of infected animals. Animals can transmit the disease for up to four days before signs of the disease appear. Animals can become infected through inhalation, ingestion and direct contact.
The disease spreads most commonly through the movement of infected animals. In sheep the symptoms can be absent or very mild, and undetected infected sheep can be an important source of infection.
The virus is also extremely transmissible on materials. It can be moved from one area to another on vehicles, goods (including clothing and footwear).

10/08/2022

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of livestock causing fever followed by the development of vesicles (blisters) chiefly in the mouth and on the feet.
FMD is generally not lethal to adult animals, but it can kill young animals and cause serious production losses.
It affects cloven-hoofed animals (those with divided hoofs) including:
cattle
buffalo
camels
sheep
goats
deer
pigs.
FMD is not considered a risk to public health as infection from animals to humans is extremely rare. FMD should not be confused with the human disease (hand, foot and mouth disease), caused by a different virus which commonly affects young children.
It is not present in Australia but is endemic throughout the Middle East, Africa, Asia and most of South America.
The most significant risk of entry of FMD into Australia is through illegal entry of meat and dairy products infected with the FMD virus and subsequent illegal feeding of these products (swill) to pigs.
Most countries would ban our livestock and livestock products as soon as foot-and-mouth disease is found. It is unlikely these restrictions would be lifted until Australia could prove that the disease had been eradicated.
The economic effects of an outbreak of FMD, would be enormous to individuals, the farming industry, and subsidiary and support industries.
Australia’s major livestock industries would be directly affected from export market closures and the disruption to production associated with the disease and response activities.
There would be significant flow-on economic losses and social impacts to many rural and regional businesses that rely on livestock industry revenue.

In recent years, a proprietary topical anesthetic and antiseptic wound-care product that is applied directly to wounds i...
10/08/2022

In recent years, a proprietary topical anesthetic and antiseptic wound-care product that is applied directly to wounds in animals to mitigate pain, bleeding, and infection (Tri-Solfen; Animal Ethics, Australia) has become available for improved animal welfare.13–15 This wound-formulation pain-relief product (PRP) contains two local anesthetics — lidocaine for rapid onset and bupivacaine for prolonged duration of anesthetic effect — adrenalin to delay systemic absorption of local anesthetic actives, and cetrimide for antiseptic activity, all within a gel matrix that provides wound coverage. The PRP is registered and has been widely and frequently used in various livestock species, particularly sheep and cattle in Australia and more recently New Zealand, to mitigate pain due to wounds from surgical husbandry procedures, including castration, tail docking, dehorning, and mulesing.14,15 It is applied directly to wounds using a “no-touch” technique as a metered-dose “spray-and-stay” formulation that adheres to the wound, providing a long-lasting coating over lesions that enables prolonged delivery of the actives and encourages healing.13 Numerous studies have reported significant reductions in pain associated with PRP therapy of wounds in sheep, cattle, and pigs, and it has also proven effective to mitigate pain associated with bovine hoof lesions, resulting in improved management of lameness.13,16

Following extensive research conducted on pain management for improved welfare for animals during husbandry procedures,13 it was hypothesized that the use of this PRP may similarly mitigate pain of FMD lesions and assist recovery. We sought to establish if the potential for a PRP to improve the demeanor, feeding, locomotion, and lesion recovery of FMD-affected animals during disease outbreaks would be of interest to smallholder farmers in Laos and beyond. Therefore, an observational clinical field trial was conducted during an outbreak of FMD in Laos in April 2019, to examine use of the PRP potentially to mitigate suffering and distress and improve recovery in FMD-affected large ruminants. This paper provides a case report documenting qualitative observations from this first-event investigation of a new approach to therapy for FMD.

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