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Wild And Wonderful, London, London (2025)

16/10/2025

🐥 Poultry Farm Disinfectant: Formalin

🔹 FORMALIN AS A DISINFECTANT IN POULTRY FARMING

Formalin, also known as formaldehyde, is a powerful disinfectant commonly used in poultry farms, hatcheries, and brooder houses. It is highly effective against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and molds, helping to reduce disease-causing contamination throughout the production process.

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💧 BENEFITS OF USING FORMALIN IN POULTRY FARMS

🧑‍🌾 Kills Harmful Microorganisms
Formalin destroys bacteria, viruses, and fungi that threaten poultry health, reducing the spread of infectious diseases.

🧑‍🌾 Controls External Parasites
It helps eliminate mites, lice, and other external parasites that cause irritation and affect bird performance.

🧑‍🌾 Maintains a Hygienic Environment
Regular disinfection with formalin supports a cleaner, healthier pen, improving overall flock productivity.

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🧴 HOW TO CLEAN YOUR POULTRY HOUSE USING FORMALIN

1️⃣ Mixing Ratio:
Dilute 1 liter of formalin in 16–20 liters of water (a full knapsack sprayer).

2️⃣ Preparation:
• Remove droppings, sweep the floor, and clean dust from walls and ceilings.
• Eliminate cobwebs and debris.

3️⃣ Washing & Disinfection:
• Wash the floor using a solution of formalin, Izal, Dettol, and detergent.
• After washing, spray the walls, nets, and corners thoroughly with the formalin solution.

4️⃣ Insect Control:
• Spray corners, ceilings, and wooden structures with a good insecticide to eliminate hiding pests.

5️⃣ Rest Period:
• Allow the disinfected pen to rest for at least 2 weeks before bringing in a new flock.

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⚠️ SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

🚫 Formalin is toxic — handle it carefully.
🧤 Protect yourself: Use gloves, masks, and eye protection.
🌬️ Work in a well-ventilated area.
🚿 Wash hands and exposed skin thoroughly after use.

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Remember: A clean, well-disinfected poultry house is the foundation of a healthy and profitable flock.

Keep Following Wild And Wonderful

14/10/2025

🐥 Poultry Chicks Feed Requirements

Understanding Feed Quantities for Efficient Growth

Proper feed planning is essential in chick rearing to ensure steady growth, reduce feed waste, and achieve high production efficiency.
Broiler feed is typically divided into three main phases:
• Starter Feed: Supports early growth and development.
• Grower Feed: Promotes body formation and muscle development.
• Finisher Feed: Maximizes weight gain before market.

Below is a detailed guide on the number of 50kg feed bags required for various flock sizes, based on recommended feeding programs.
This also shows the total feed bags needed and the average feed intake per bird.

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📊 Feed Requirements by Number of Chicks

For 50 chicks:
• Starter: 1 bag
• Grower: 1 bag
• Finisher: 2 bags
• Total: 4 bags
• Average per bird: 4.00 kg

For 100 chicks:
• Starter: 2 bags
• Grower: 3 bags
• Finisher: 3 bags
• Total: 8 bags
• Average per bird: 4.00 kg

For 150 chicks:
• Starter: 3 bags
• Grower: 4 bags
• Finisher: 4 bags
• Total: 11 bags
• Average per bird: 3.67 kg

For 200 chicks:
• Starter: 3 bags
• Grower: 5 bags
• Finisher: 5 bags
• Total: 13 bags
• Average per bird: 3.25 kg

For 250 chicks:
• Starter: 4 bags
• Grower: 6 bags
• Finisher: 6 bags
• Total: 16 bags
• Average per bird: 3.20 kg

For 300 chicks:
• Starter: 5 bags
• Grower: 7 bags
• Finisher: 7 bags
• Total: 19 bags
• Average per bird: 3.17 kg

For 350 chicks:
• Starter: 6 bags
• Grower: 8 bags
• Finisher: 9 bags
• Total: 23 bags
• Average per bird: 3.29 kg

For 400 chicks:
• Starter: 6 bags
• Grower: 10 bags
• Finisher: 10 bags
• Total: 26 bags
• Average per bird: 3.25 kg

For 450 chicks:
• Starter: 7 bags
• Grower: 11 bags
• Finisher: 11 bags
• Total: 29 bags
• Average per bird: 3.22 kg

For 500 chicks:
• Starter: 8 bags
• Grower: 12 bags
• Finisher: 12 bags
• Total: 32 bags
• Average per bird: 3.20 kg

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🐣 Note:
• Starter feed is given during the first few weeks of life when chicks need high protein and energy levels.
• Adjust feeding quantities based on breed, management, and environmental conditions.
• Always provide clean water, proper lighting, and adequate space to ensure feed efficiency.

13/10/2025

🐔 Understanding Chicken Diarrhea: What the Color Tells You & How to Treat It

Monitoring the color and consistency of chicken droppings is one of the simplest yet most effective ways to assess flock health. Each color often signals a specific issue — and early detection can prevent major losses. Below is a guide to help you understand what different types of diarrhea mean and how to manage them effectively.

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💛 Yellow Diarrhea

Possible Causes:
• Coccidiosis
• Bacterial infections (e.g., Clostridial enteritis)
• Stress or sudden feed changes
• Viral diseases like Gumboro or liver disorders

Treatment:
• For coccidiosis: Give amprolium (CORID) — 2 tsp per gallon of water for 5–7 days as the only water source.
• For bacterial infections: Use a vet-prescribed antibiotic such as oxytetracycline. Herbal alternatives can support mild cases.
• After treatment: Provide probiotics to restore gut balance.

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💚 Green Diarrhea

Possible Causes:
• Bile overflow due to rapid gut transit
• Bacterial or viral infections (Newcastle, Avian Influenza)
• Poor diet or liver disease

Treatment:
• Give multivitamins and electrolytes for hydration and recovery.
• If infection is suspected, use enrofloxacin (under veterinary guidance).
• Isolate sick birds immediately to prevent disease spread.

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🤍 White Diarrhea

Possible Causes:
• Kidney problems
• Salmonella infection
• Fungal or yeast infection (Candidiasis)
• Cold or stress

Treatment:
• For fungal infections: Use Nystatin as recommended.
• Disinfect all feeders, drinkers, and surfaces.
• Avoid unnecessary antibiotic use and give probiotics for gut support.

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❤️ Red or Bloody Diarrhea

Possible Causes:
• Severe coccidiosis (Eimeria tenella)
• Intestinal bleeding or heavy worm infestation
• Certain viral diseases

Treatment:
• Administer amprolium for 7 days immediately.
• In severe cases, use sulfa drugs (as prescribed).
• Deworm using albendazole if parasites are present.
• Provide vitamins A and K to aid healing and clotting.

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🤎 Watery or Foamy Diarrhea

Possible Causes:
• Digestive upset or dietary imbalance
• Clostridial enteritis
• Heat or stress

Treatment:
• Identify and correct diet or management issues.
• Use targeted antibacterials or herbal treatments for Clostridium.
• Ensure constant access to clean water and give electrolytes.

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🧩 Key Management Tips

✅ Monitor droppings daily — early action prevents major outbreaks.
✅ Isolate and treat sick birds promptly.
✅ Keep the poultry house clean, dry, and well-ventilated.
✅ Consult a qualified veterinarian for diagnosis and dosage guidance.
✅ Use antibiotics only when necessary to avoid resistance.

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Remember: The color of chicken droppings is more than just a mess — it’s a message about your flock’s health.
Stay observant, act early, and protect your birds.
Keep Following Wild And Wonderful

13/10/2025

🐔 Poultry Backyard Farming (Gallus domesticus)

🌿 What Is Backyard Poultry Farming?

Backyard poultry refers to raising chickens (Gallus domesticus) in small numbers, usually around homes or in small community spaces. It’s increasingly popular worldwide — both in developed and developing countries.

In developing regions, backyard poultry makes up about 80% of total poultry stock, usually consisting of indigenous breeds of different ages and species raised together. These birds serve as an important source of food and income for households.

In contrast, in the United States and other urban areas, backyard chickens are often kept as pets or hobby animals. A USDA study (2010) in four major cities — Los Angeles, Denver, Miami, and New York — found that 0.8% of households already owned chickens, while nearly 4% planned to start within 5 years.

As this trend grows, it is important that owners receive proper education on flock health and management — and that veterinarians are prepared to offer care and guidance for small-scale poultry keepers.

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🐣 Origin and Types of Chickens

All domestic chickens trace their ancestry to the Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus), first domesticated in Southeast Asia thousands of years ago.

Today, there are hundreds of chicken breeds, grouped mainly into three types:
• 🥩 Meat-type breeds – fast-growing, high meat yield (e.g., broilers).
• 🥚 Egg-type breeds – selected for high egg production (e.g., Leghorns).
• 🍗 Dual-purpose breeds – suitable for both meat and eggs, such as Rhode Island Red, Plymouth Rock, New Hampshire, Wyandotte, and Orpington.
These dual-purpose breeds are especially ideal for backyard and family-level poultry farming.

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🧫 Best Practices for Healthy Backyard Poultry

To ensure a healthy and productive flock:

✅ Buy from reputable hatcheries or breeders — ideally those participating in the National Poultry Improvement Plan (NPIP), where flocks are regularly tested for diseases such as Salmonella Pullorum and S. Gallinarum.
You can find certified hatcheries through state poultry associations.

✅ Inspect the breeder or hatchery before purchase to ensure birds are healthy.

✅ Avoid mixing birds from different sources, species, or age groups — this increases the risk of disease. Follow the “all in, all out” system whenever possible.

✅ If multiple species or ages are kept:
• Separate groups in different enclosures.
• Care for the most valuable or healthy birds first each day.

✅ Quarantine new or returning birds for 4–6 weeks to monitor for disease before introducing them to the flock.

✅ Practice strict biosecurity — keep the coop clean, control visitors, disinfect equipment, and prevent contact with wild birds.

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🌾 Conclusion

Backyard poultry farming is an excellent way to provide fresh food, income, and companionship, but it also requires proper management, disease prevention, and care. With good practices and education, small-scale poultry keepers can maintain healthy, productive, and happy flocks.

Keep Following Wild And Wonderful

12/10/2025

Every day, we dedicate ourselves to caring for hundreds of hens — feeding them, collecting fresh eggs, and keeping their space clean and safe 🐔💛 It’s hard work, but seeing the results of our effort makes it all worth it! 🌾🥚💪

12/10/2025

🐥 Common Mistakes to Avoid as a Beginner Poultry Farmer

Just like any other agribusiness, poultry farming can fail if proper steps aren’t taken or if critical mistakes are made. Some of these errors can lead to serious losses — even the death of an entire flock.

Every experienced poultry farmer has lessons they wish they had learned earlier. To help you avoid the same pitfalls, here are key mistakes to watch out for as a beginner:

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⚠️ Top Mistakes Beginner Poultry Farmers Make

🐔 Buying Birds from Unknown or Unreliable Sources
Always purchase chicks from trusted and certified hatcheries or breeders. Poor-quality stock leads to disease outbreaks and low productivity.

🐔 Using Low-Quality Feeds
Feed determines growth, egg production, and overall health. Compromising on quality will cost more in the long run.

🐔 Poor Hygiene and Ventilation
A dirty or poorly ventilated poultry house encourages diseases and stress among birds. Clean regularly and maintain proper airflow.

🐔 Choosing the Wrong Breed
Select breeds that match your production goals (broilers, layers, or dual-purpose) and climate conditions in your area.

🐔 Ignoring Early Signs of Illness
Check your birds daily. Quick detection and treatment can save your flock from massive losses.

🐔 Lack of Financial Planning
Ensure you have enough funds for feed, medication, and emergencies. Starting without a budget often leads to early collapse.

🐔 Using or Storing Toxic Chemicals Around the Poultry House
Avoid pesticides, disinfectants, and fumigants near birds unless they are poultry-safe and used correctly.

🐔 Neglecting Training and Staff Development
Invest in yourself and your workers. Attend workshops, follow experts, and keep learning modern poultry practices.

🐔 Overcrowding and Poor Spacing
Too many birds in limited space cause stress, disease, and poor performance. Follow recommended stocking densities for healthy growth.

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💡 Final Advice

Before starting any agribusiness, take time to learn. Proper knowledge reduces costly mistakes and helps you build a profitable, sustainable farm.

🌟 Wishing you great success and more profits in your poultry farming journey! 🌟

🐣🐥🐔 |
Keep Following Wild And Wonderful

12/10/2025

🐥 Poultry Brooding of Day-Old Chicks

🔹 What Is Brooding?

Brooding refers to the application of external heat and the care of young chicks during the early stages of life to provide an optimum environment for growth and survival.

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🔹 Why Brooding Is Important

Proper brooding is the foundation of successful poultry production.
Here’s why it matters:
• Provides chicks with the extra heat they need for comfort and survival.
• Ensures chicks eat and drink adequately, preventing dehydration or starvation due to extreme temperatures.
• Promotes steady and uniform growth — poor brooding leads to stunted development.
• Prevents omphalitis (yolk sac infection) by aiding proper yolk absorption.
• Reduces early chick mortality and improves overall flock health.

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🔹 Key Factors for Successful Brooding
1. Pre-Placement Preparation (PPP)
2. Feed and Water Management
3. Light Management
4. Temperature Management
5. Air & Ventilation Management

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🧼 A. Pre-Placement Preparation (PPP)

Before chicks arrive, ensure the brooding environment is clean, disinfected, and ready.
• Clean and disinfect the brooding house thoroughly.
• Soak the floor and equipment (feeders, drinkers, curtains) with a strong disinfectant, then dry them under sunlight.
• Arrange equipment neatly and set up brooder rings or spaces with litter about 4 inches thick.
• Fix curtains on open sides and disinfect the entire brooder area.
• Place footbaths with disinfectant at the entrance.
• Fumigate the house before chick arrival.
• Optionally, cover the litter with newspapers for the first few days.
• Position the heat source at the center of the brooder ring.

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🐣 B. Feed and Water Management

Feed and water are critical to early chick health and development.
• Provide supplemental feeder trays at placement (1 tray per 40 chicks).
• Place feeders between drinkers for easy access.
• Offer clean, fresh water at all times.
• Check chicks’ crop fill within the first few hours:
• 95% of crops should be soft and pliable (indicating proper feed and water intake).
• Hard crops = not enough water → check water supply.
• Swollen crops = excess water, not enough feed → check feed quality and quantity.

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💡 C. Light Management

Light encourages feeding, activity, and warmth regulation.
• Provide continuous lighting for the first 48–72 hours after placement.
• Gradually reduce light hours as chicks grow:
• Days 1–3 → 23 hours
• Days 4–7 → 22 hours
• Days 8–14 → 20 hours
• Days 15–21 → 19 hours
• Days 22–28 → 18 hours

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🌡️ D. Temperature Management

Temperature is one of the most critical factors in brooding.
• Best time for adjustment: evening (observe chick behavior).
• Use chick behavior as a temperature guide:
• Huddled together: too cold
• Far apart, panting: too hot
• Evenly spread, active: ideal temperature

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🌬️ E. Air and Ventilation Management

Fresh air is essential for chick health.
• Maintain good cross ventilation to remove excess moisture and heat.
• Ensure free movement space around feeders and drinkers.
• Avoid drafts — airflow should be gentle and consistent.

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✅ Remember: Proper brooding = Healthy chicks + Fast growth + Low mortality.

Keep Following Wild And Wonderful

12/10/2025

Sheep and Goat Tetanus:
====================

Best Medicines to Control Tetanus in Sheep and Goats:

🧫 Disease Overview:

Tetanus is caused by Clostridium tetani bacteria producing neurotoxins that lead to muscle stiffness, spasms, and death if untreated.
It usually follows wounds, ear tagging, castration, or parturition injuries.

💊 Best Medicines / Treatment Protocol;

1. Antitoxin Therapy
• Tetanus Antitoxin (TAT):
• Dose:
10,000–50,000 IU subcutaneously or intramuscularly (depending on severity).
• Purpose:
Neutralizes circulating toxin.
• Repeat after 12–24 hours if symptoms persist.

2. Antibiotics (to kill C. tetani):
• Penicillin G:
20,000–40,000 IU/kg IM twice daily for 5–7 days.
• Metronidazole:
25 mg/kg orally or IM for 5–7 days (alternative).
• Ampicillin / Amoxicillin:
Useful in mild cases or wound infections.

3. Muscle Relaxants & Sedatives:
• Diazepam:
0.2–0.5 mg/kg IV slowly to control convulsions.
• Acepromazine:
0.05–0.1 mg/kg IM (as needed).
• Keep animals in quiet, dark area to prevent stimulation.

4. Wound Management:
• Clean wound with hydrogen peroxide or iodine solution.
• Apply antiseptic ointment daily until healed.

5. Supportive Therapy:
• Fluids & Electrolytes:
To maintain hydration.
• Vitamin B-complex and calcium supplements aid recovery.
• Soft bedding and careful nursing to prevent secondary injuries.

🛡️ Control & Prevention:
• Vaccination:
• Clostridium perfringens + tetani toxoid (multivalent vaccine).
• Ewes and does:
4–6 weeks before lambing/kidding.
• Young stock:
6–8 weeks age, booster after 4–6 weeks.
• Strict hygiene during castration, dehorning, tagging, and kidding.
• Store and use vaccines properly.

23/09/2025

Poultry Farming Secret: 360 Eggs per Hen per Year

How to Keep Your Layers Laying Consistently

Egg production can be both rewarding and profitable. With proper care, a single healthy hen can produce up to 360 eggs per year—nearly one egg every day. Here’s how to maximize your flock’s output:

1. Choose High-Performing Breeds

Select proven layer breeds bred for productivity, such as Isa Brown, Lohman Brown, or Hi-Line White. These hens are reliable and consistent egg layers.

2. Provide a Balanced Diet
• Feed 110–125 g of layer mash per hen per day, rich in calcium, protein, and essential vitamins.
• Supplement with crushed oyster shells or limestone for strong eggshells.
• Offer grit to support proper digestion.

3. Ensure Fresh, Clean Water
• A laying hen drinks 1.5–2 times more water than feed daily.
• Keep drinkers clean and refill them frequently.
• Provide cool, fresh water to boost appetite and maintain egg output.

4. Manage Lighting Effectively
• Provide 14–16 hours of light daily to sustain egg laying.
• Use low-watt bulbs to extend daylight during shorter seasons.
• Maintain a consistent light schedule to keep hens calm and productive.

5. Maintain Healthy Housing
• Allow 0.225 m² of floor space per bird, or use ventilated cages.
• Keep litter dry and clean to prevent disease.
• Install nest boxes early so hens learn where to lay.

6. Vaccination & Biosecurity
• Follow a vet-recommended vaccination program (e.g., Newcastle, Gumboro).
• Disinfect equipment, shoes, and limit unnecessary visitors.
• Healthy hens = steady egg production.

7. Cull Non-Productive Hens
• Monitor comb color, body condition, and pelvic bone spacing weekly.
• Remove hens that no longer lay to maintain flock efficiency.

8. Minimize Stress
• Protect hens from noise, predators, and temperature fluctuations.
• Provide shade in hot weather and handle birds gently.
• A calm environment supports continuous laying.

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✅ Key Takeaway

With the right breed selection, nutrition, lighting, housing, health care, and stress management, you can achieve up to 360 eggs per hen annually—ensuring a reliable source of food and income year-round.

Keep Following Wild And Wonderful

23/09/2025

Brahma Chicken Breed

Types of Brahma Chickens

Brahmas are a majestic breed, admired for their large size, calm temperament, and unique feathering. They come in several varieties distinguished mainly by color and plumage patterns.

1. Light Brahma

Light Brahmas are predominantly white, accented with black in the hackles and tail. Their black feathers are tipped with white, creating a sharp contrast. Known for being friendly and productive, they are valued both for eggs and meat.

2. Dark Brahma

Dark Brahmas feature striking black plumage highlighted with white hackles and penciling. Males typically show bold black-and-white contrasts, while females have a dark gray body with lighter flecking. This type is slightly larger than the Light Brahma and just as gentle in nature.

3. Buff Brahma

Buff Brahmas showcase a golden buff plumage, resembling the Light Brahma but with a rich, warm coloring. They are easygoing, productive birds that make excellent companions as well as reliable layers and meat producers.

4. Colombian Brahma

Less common than the main three varieties, Colombian Brahmas display a white body with striking black markings on the head and tail. Their distinct pattern makes them popular as ornamental birds.

5. Blue Brahma

The Blue Brahma is a rarer variation, noted for its blue-gray feathers. While not as widely recognized as the Light, Dark, or Buff types, it stands out for its unusual coloring.

6. Bantam Brahma

Bantam Brahmas are miniature versions of the standard breed, available in Light, Dark, and Buff colors. Their smaller size and gentle temperament make them especially appealing to hobbyists and backyard keepers.

Key Traits of Brahma Chickens
• Size: Among the largest chicken breeds, roosters can reach up to 12 lbs, while hens average around 9 lbs.
• Egg Production: Brahma hens lay about 3–4 medium to large brown eggs weekly, making them a dependable dual-purpose breed.
• Temperament: Calm, docile, and friendly, they are well-suited for families and beginners.
• Feathering: All Brahmas are recognized for their feathered legs and feet, which enhance their unique appearance.

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In summary: Brahma chickens are prized not only for their productivity in both eggs and meat but also for their striking beauty and gentle personalities. Their impressive stature and distinctive feathering make them a beloved choice among poultry keepers worldwide.

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31/08/2025

How to Tell Hens from Roosters: A Quick Guide

Telling roosters and hens apart comes down to size, feather type, combs and wattles, and behavior. Roosters are generally larger, flashier in color, and sport bigger red combs and wattles. They also have long, pointed tail feathers (called sickles), sharp spurs on their legs, and tend to crow. Hens are usually smaller, with shorter, rounded feathers, modest combs and wattles, and a stronger focus on foraging and laying. Instead of crowing, hens cluck or squawk.

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Physical Differences

Combs & Wattles
• Roosters: Large, bright red, and very noticeable.
• Hens: Smaller, less prominent.

Feathers
• Tail: Roosters grow long, arched “sickle” feathers; hens have shorter, rounded tails.
• Hackle & Saddle Feathers: Roosters develop long, pointed feathers along the neck and back; hens’ feathers are shorter and rounded.

Spurs
• Roosters: Sharp, pointed growths on the back of their legs.
• Hens: Usually very small or absent.

Legs & Feet
• Roosters: Thick, strong legs with sharp claws.
• Hens: Slimmer legs and smaller feet.

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Identifying Young Chicks

Sexing chicks is tricky and not always accurate until they mature. Still, a few clues can help:
• Feather growth: In many breeds, female chicks’ wing feathers appear and grow faster.
• Comb development: Young roosters (cockerels) often show larger, redder combs and wattles earlier than young hens (pullets).
• Behavior: Male chicks may strut, play-fight, or act more dominant at a young age.
• Vent s*xing: A specialized method performed by trained professionals, involving inspection of internal s*x organs. This should only be done by experts, as it can harm the chick if done incorrectly.

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✨ Follow us for more tips and share this guide with fellow chicken keepers!

26/08/2025

Clostridium novyi Infection in Cattle (Black Disease / Infectious Necrotic Hepatitis)

Overview
Black disease, also known as infectious necrotic hepatitis, is an acute and often fatal condition in cattle caused by Clostridium novyi type B. The disease is characterized by severe liver necrosis and is strongly associated with liver damage caused by migrating liver flukes (Fasciola hepatica). It typically occurs in late summer and early autumn and is most often identified when animals are found dead without prior signs of illness.

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Causes
• Infection with Clostridium novyi type B, a spore-forming anaerobic bacterium.
• Bacterial spores remain dormant in the liver until activated.
• Liver damage from migrating Fasciola hepatica flukes triggers bacterial proliferation.
• Higher risk on wet, poorly drained, marshy pastures where fluke infestation is common.

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Clinical Signs
• Sudden death (most common presentation).
• Occasionally observed before death: fever, anorexia, depression.
• Icterus (yellow discoloration of mucous membranes).
• Abdominal pain and reluctance to move.
• Subcutaneous edema (notably in brisket and neck).
• Rapid progression with death usually occurring within 24–48 hours.

⸻

Diagnosis
• History: Grazing on fluke-infested pastures, sudden unexplained deaths.
• Clinical observations: Icterus, subcutaneous edema, rapid mortality.
• Post-mortem findings:
• Enlarged, pale liver with necrotic foci and visible fluke tracts.
• Subcutaneous edema and generalized congestion.
• Dark, unclotted blood in body cavities.
• Laboratory confirmation: Bacterial culture, PCR, or fluorescent antibody testing.

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Differential Diagnoses
• Blackleg (Clostridium chauvoei).
• Bacillary hemoglobinuria (Clostridium haemolyticum).
• Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) – associated with dark unclotted blood and sudden death.
• Leptospirosis (acute form with jaundice and hemoglobinuria).
• Fasciolosis (without clostridial involvement).

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Treatment
• Often unrewarding due to the rapid course.
• In early cases: high-dose penicillin or oxytetracycline.
• Supportive therapy: IV fluids, NSAIDs, B-complex vitamins, antioxidants.
• Flukicide treatment (e.g., triclabendazole, closantel) to reduce liver fluke burden.
• Pasture and drainage management to minimize fluke exposure.

⸻

Prevention & Control
• Vaccination with multivalent clostridial vaccines.
• Routine liver fluke control program.
• Avoid grazing cattle on wet, marshy pastures prone to fluke infestation.

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